J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 7(12)288-295, 2017 | ISSN: 2090-4274 |
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1Ph. D-Scholar-Political Science Department ofPolitics &InternationalRelations, FacultyofSocial Sciences, InternationalIslamicUniversity, Islamabad-Pakistan 2Assistant Professor-History/Head, Department ofAnthropology, FacultyofSocial Sciences, FacultyBlock#I, First Floor, New Campus, Sector#H-10, InternationalIslamicUniversity, Islamabad-Pakistan
Received: September 3, 2017 Accepted: November 1, 2017
Gender equality is one of the most discussing social issues in international and national forums. Many of the states gives importance this issue while makingtheir publicpolicies. This studydiscusses political dimension of gender inequality prevailing in Pakistan. Pakistan is a patriarchal society. Women face social insecurity, disrespectful environment, negligence in decision making, etc. Politically gender equality is one of the major priorities of the public policy for the advancement of women in the country. However, women in Pakistan are living according to old customs and traditions which fence their political empowerment. Musharraf and successor governments have taken a significant move in this regard to give them voice, and to make them part ofdecision makingandlegislation. This paper focuses on socio-political constraints in political empowerment of women. It analyses the political parties’ manifestos andpractice regardinggender inequality. Studyconcludes that stereotypical gender divisions of labour, societal attitude and lack of political will are primarily to blame for gender inequality in politics. However, long term transformation of Pakistan as gender-balanced state needs policy formulation, effective implementation andstrongpolitical will. KEY WORDS: Male Dominance Political Inequality, Women Empowerment, Patriarchal Structure, Quota,
Women Representation
The word Gender refers to both men and women. They are born equal, but social construction differentiates them on the basisoftheir stereotype roles. Gender inequalityis the unequal distribution offinance, power, and privilege between men and women. It is common scene that majority of women are under the domination of men. In the west and Europe, laws were made from time to time to give sufficient protection, freedom and equality to women. Women rights have been linked with human rights. Gender inequality and women discrimination in developing countries still exist. Pakistani women also face gender inequality in different environments andplaces.
In Pakistan, different strategies and techniques have emerged at different times for advancement of women. Eachgovernment addressed empowerment of women andgender equalityas important part ofitspublic policy. The formulations of public policies across gender are in conformity with global agenda. Each succeeding policy has sued to deal differently with the issues of previous strategies, but impacts of all gender equalityapproaches in thepast on societyhaveremaineddissatisfactory.
In the short history of Pakistan, the Musharraf government (1999-2008) and successor parliaments have had maximum representation of women in politics. This has been due to the understanding of leaders regarding gender equality as one of major variable for national development in contemporary global environment. The current study attempts to unearth How Musharraf and successor governments’ policies addressed political dimension of inequalities across gender in Pakistan? It is argued in this research that governments ofPakistan, duringlast decade, designed policies to bring balance between genders just to achieve their political interests. So these policies were not so successful to decrease gender inequalities and bring about real change for women in society. The purpose of studyis to find the reasons ofgovernments’ failure to address political inequalities across gender in their true essence. This studyconcludes that transformation ofPakistan as gender-balanced state needs policy formulation, effective implementation by the governments and strong political will ofpoliticalparties.
This paper consist of mainly two sections, section one is addressing situation of gender inequality prevailing in Pakistani society while section two discussing the concept of political inequality and role of politicalpartiesregardinggender inequality. At the end conclusion isincluded.
Corresponding Author: Dr. Abdul Zahoor Khan, Assistant Professor-History/Head, Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Social Sciences, FacultyBlock#I, First Floor, New Campus, Sector#H-10, International Islamic University, Islamabad-Pakistan, E-mails:dr.zahoorkhan@iiu.edu.pk;dr.zahoor2008@gmail.com
Section 1: Gender inequality in Pakistan
Pakistan has very poor gender indicators. It ranks 115 on the UN Development Programs. Pakistani women face exclusion from access to social services, economic opportunities and decision making [1]. Some urban, middle-class women do play a role in public life. However, most women are severely constrained by discriminatory patriarchal norms which are being reinforced by the spread of extremism. It is a reality that attitudes to deny women’s fundamental rights exist in both formal and informal institutions of society. Women cannot claim any right on these institutions. Their rights and interests are overlooked by their male decision makers. This situation is one of the important topic of discussion in academia and non-academia. Gender inequalityand women exclusion must, therefore, be an integralpart ofthe government’spublic policy.
Pakistan is one of those countries where women are in lower number as compared to men in the population. According to population census of 1998, there are 98 women for every102 men as against a world average of111 women to every100 men. Death rate of15 to 40years young women is 75%more than men [2]. The above demographic statistics show discrimination against women in society. Lower number of women in population is because of malnutrition, anaemia, shortage of food, negligence of girl child and unavailability of health facilities. In Pakistani society, mostlypeople are considered fortunate whohas sons instead ofdaughters. The parents consider it abadfortune tohave daughtersonly.
Women, whether theybelong toremote village or developed cities, face more or less same problems as subordinate or inferior creatures. In Pakistani society, veryfew women can express their choice for their partner; otherwise partner is decidedbyfamilymale elders without consent ofgirl. Ifanygirlraises her voice or tellsher choice, she is declared as symbol of shame for not only family or surrounding but for coming generations. Mostly marriages are decided within family, tribe or biraderies (lineages). In some cases, decision power is handed over toa biraderi panchayat or tribal Jirga that is also headedbyamale who decides fate of agirl. This is a type of organizational kinship. The situation in cities is a little better where women have chances to get education and employment, but no woman can setup career or live alone without the protection of husband, father, brother or son. Ifawomen is divorced or awidowandhave small kids, she will be returned toher father or brother untilher son is grown-up. Her son can protect her but sheisnot able toprotect herselfor her home.
Section 2: Political Inequality
Women’s political empowerment and political equality refers to the autonomy of women to cast vote according to their assent, to participate in political activities, to compete in elections, to attend political demonstrations and to take decision regarding their actions, needs and priorities. In Pakistani society, women’s political empowerment is foiled bypatriarchal, feudal, and socio religious structure [3]. Each of these prohibits women from emergent political activities, capabilities and experiences. Anumber of women are present in the legislative bodies, political parties, in local, provincial or national government. However, women’s presence in other fields like economy, education andhealth remainsinsignificant due tocultural andstructural fences.
Quota for women’s seats was reserved in all constitutions of Pakistan from 1956 to 1973. In the first constitution; three percent quota was approved for women. According to The second Constitution of 1962 National Assembly was consisting of156 seats, including 6reserved seats for women. These seats were equally dividedbetween both wings oftheState [4].
Twenty women were elected as members in the Majlis-e-Shoora of General Zia in 1981. In 1985 the reserved quota was raised from 10 to 20 percent in National Assembly. This number of women remained the same in 1988 elections [5]. Musharraf government has brought a prominent change in society through policy related to women. It reserved 60 seats in National assembly. In existing parliament; women have acquired 60 seats on special quota and 11 on general seats. In the NA, 17%and at local government 33%seats, are reserved for women at present.
The below mentioned table demonstrates the number of women elected andparticipatedin politics and decision making since independence todatein various legislative assemblies ofPakistan.
J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci.,7(12)288-295,2017
Table 1:Representation of Women in Pakistan’s Legislature (1947-2013)[6]
The above table clearly indicates the impact Musharraf policies to bring women in political mainstream. Throughout history of Pakistan, all governments had been reserved quota for women in political decision making and in parliament. But before Musharraf government the participation of women was not as much. Musharrafgovernment has made public policywhichis favourable for gender equalityin politics. Above table showed that duringMusharrafperiod women participation jumpedfrom 2.8%to21.64%.
Pakistan’s politics rotates around two major political parties, ‘the Pakistan People’s Party’ (PPP) and the ‘Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz’ (PML-N), though the significance of small parties cannot be overlooked in the democratic system of Pakistan. To explain and judge the role and pledges of all political parties, a comparative analysis about the policies defined for women empowerment and gender inequalityin mainstream political parties’, the manifestos are helpful to understand how each would add towards equality and greater participation ofwomen in politics.
J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci.,7(12)288-295,2017
the subject of commitments and concrete action for women’s rights and empowerment. PPPhas focus on social development with an increase in education andhealth sector as essentials of social development on the top ofits agenda [15]. It is observed that the number of women who contested the 2013 elections gone down. Total 36 women have been awarded tickets for general seats ofNational Assembly, in comparison tothe 34 candidates in 2008 and38 in the 2002 elections. The belowmentionedtable showcomparison ofwomen candidatesacross party;
Table 2. Women candidates on General Seats in 2013 election [16]
Political Party | Percentage of tickets awarded to women |
PPP | 7.0% |
PML (F) | 6.9% |
APML | 4.8% |
PML (N) | 3.7% |
PML (Q) | 3.7% |
ANP | 3.5% |
MQM | 3.3% |
PTI | 2.2% |
Political Party Women representation in party Decision making committees Percentage of participation
Above facts showed horizontally inequality across gender in political parties’ decision making wings. The above ratio showed discriminatory behaviour across gender. Political parties should ensure women’s representation at party leadership positions assuming democratic norms within party. Parties should be considered to adopt voluntary targets and quotas to guarantee women to be elected other than constitutional quota. Political Parties must identify issues curtailing women’s political participation and their solution on prioritybasis.
Women’s participation in politics is just to cast vote. It consists of a number of freedoms, as to speak out and stand for something; assemble groups; participation in public affairs; to compete in election; to be elected and to hold office at the highest levels of decision making. According to international laws and commitments both men and women equal rights and chances to participate in all activities of political affairs. However, it is very simple to speak about rights but often hard for women to exercise these rights in practice. There are frequent barriers and challenges for women to choose politics as a career in traditional and cultural societies, anditrequires specialmethod toensuretheimplement these rights.
In Pakistan, the Constitution granted right of political participation to women. There are no formal legal obstacles for women’s entry into politics in theory; however in practice, there are various complications for women’s political empowerment. These hurdles need to be identified and addressed in order to ensure gender equalityandimplementation oflaws.
Traditionally politics has been male dominated, that is unwelcoming and hostile for many women. Pakistan is apatriarchal andtraditional societywithdeep rootedpatriarchal valueshavingobjection on women’s entryinto politics. In addition, culture is non-supportive and a hurdle, including scarcity of financial resources, lower levels of education, less access to information, greater family responsibilities and discrimination and deprivation of rights provide them with few opportunities to acquire political experience. Those women who enter into politics are the close relatives of male politicians, like Benazir Bhutto, Begum Naseem Wali khan, Maryam Nawaz, Maryam Aurangzeb, SairaTarar etc., otherwise women generallylack in the political networks necessaryfor success.
Male domination of formal political structure is a major factor that hindered women’s political empowerment. In addition to this, the socio-cultural dependency of women is one of the key factors to their political participation in public political field. Women’s economic dependency and lack of access to ownership of productive resources contribute in limiting the scope of their political work [18]. In such a career, illiteracy and ignorance of women regarding their rights and duties in relation to politics hinder women’s political empowerment.
Patriarchyas an ideological system ofmale domination shapes women relation in politics. It transforms male and female into man and woman and constructs the hierarchy of gender relation where man is privileged and woman is deprived. Thus patriarchy is a familial, social, ideological, political system in which man by force, direct pressure or through rituals, tradition, law, language, customs, education, and the division oflabour, determine what part women shall or shall not play in which the female is everywhere considered below the male[19].
Hence patriarchal norms practiced throughout the world and especially in Pakistani society influences other dimensions of social life, because man is more superior to woman, thus power politics is best suited to men than women. Patriarchy affects women decisions related to their career, selection of life partner, vote casting and political affiliation thus making women as second class citizens deprived of enjoying equal status anddecision makingpower at alllevels, confiningwomen todomestic activities ofhouseholdandchildrearing.
Political parties play important role in women’s political empowerment. Political parties are very influential in shaping women’s political projection. Democratic governments andinternational organizations are working to increase the women’s sharing in elections and also focus on the role of political parties to that end. Other than parties, women can enlarge their involvement by joining civil society organizations, NGO’s and media which collectivelycan provide opportunities for women’s political empowerment.
Political factors are enlisted as hurdles to women’s entry into politics. There is male domination in politics, political parties and the culture of formal political structures is another factor that hinders women’s political participation. Often male dominated political parties have a male perspective on issues of national importance that ignore women’s perspectives and are not reflected in party politics. Women are not elected to high positions of decision making within parties because of gender biases of male leadership. Meetings of councils or parliamentarysessions areheldin odd timings conflicting with women’s domesticresponsibilities.
Political party law is another form of guarantee for women to be elected. Most countries have law to regulate, toorganizeandregister politicalparties which can be afundamental tool in establishingmechanism for women’s political advancement. The main parties are controlled by few male leaders who may be reluctant or less receptive to such law and reluctant to select large number of women candidates. Transparency in party elections is also a prerequisite to give women better chances to emerge as political leaders. This law may also ensure it with a provision ofgender equality within it [20]. Pakistan can follow this root byadopting this law to improve women’s politicalparticipation.
There are special women wings in most of the political parties in the world and in Pakistan to increase women participation in politics. Through thisstrategyparties are providingchances for women tobecome active and toget political experiences. Women’s wings can influence on partydecisions, especiallyon issues related to women development and maylead to decrease marginalization of women in the party. Parties can provide their platform to address gender inequality and other issues of women by increasing representation of women in parties’ decision making and can offer incentive for women to be involved in the political process. Political parties might encourage women’s input by captivating gender-sensitive issues like violence against women, inequality in unemployment, housing, education, and social issues such as family planning and reproductive health.
The quota system as a strategy to increase women’s representation aims to address the problems of women’s under representation. One of the most effective affirmative actions are seen through Quotas in increasing women’s political representation with positive impact on the number of women represented. Though the quota system has increased number of women in the assemblies but it isatemporarymeasure toreach at the goal of gender balance. It does not facilitate competition and democratic participation of women. Women are considered mere numbers to fill in statistics with a low political and economic power. Although quotas have increased women in politics, but in reality this system is not more than mere symbolic. The above mentioned points are constraints and can be converted into opportunities simultaneously with implementation and commitment. Likewise quota is at the same time a strategy to increase participation and make hurdles for women; it give voice totheunheard, andisahurdle asit restricts numerical strength ofwomen[21].
Women at present are more aware of their political rights which are another significant element for women’s collective and individual capacity. This political consciousness is the result of increased awareness through different sources like media, social media, NGO’s and civil society organizations, and in this way women’s inclusion is possible in the politics and development of Pakistan. Hence civil society and women’s
J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci.,7(12)288-295,2017
specific initiatives are necessaryfor making women more active in political arena andincrease their capacityto turn politics and development into women’s favour. Women’s overburdened and multiple roles as productive, reproductive and public activity need to be stress-free in order to make women more visible and effective competitors in politics[22].Women’s political empowerment is the prerequisite in achieving sustainable social, cultural, economic andpolitical securityamongallindividuals
The study concludes that the position of women is inferior as a group in Pakistan’s male dominated social structure and theydo not have their opinion in the economic and political matters. The policies regarding gender equality in politics during Musharraf and successor government have brought many positive effects on society. Number of women entered into the parliament. Women representation in Pakistan’s parliament, although higher to that of other Muslim countries, is not equal in all provinces of the country. Women’s representation is minimal in Baluchistan and completely absent in the FATA region. Female representation is essential for designing national policies specific to women’s issues in these parts. There are also numerous barricades and challenges for women to choose politics as a career in Pakistan’s traditional mind-set society. Mostly women who participate in to politics have near and dear relationship with male politicians, otherwise women aregenerallyfar behindin thisfield. It is dutyofpoliticalpartiestogive equal participation towomen in parties and decision making and encourage common women party worker to come forward and become part of the parliament
Though the quota system has played positive role in women political empowerment and increased number of women in the assemblies but it isnot much effective measure toreach at the goal ofgender equality; it does not facilitate competition and democratic participation of women. Women are considered mere numbers to fill in statistics with a low political and economic power. Political parties should encourage women contestantsin general elections.
Transparency in party elections is also pre-requisite to give women better chances to emerge as political leaders. Women’s political empowerment needs an extensive approach. Advancing women’s political empowerment in Pakistan requires more steady efforts by women themselves, government, the international communityand civil societycollectively. Actions of all the actors are important but those ofpolitical parties are particularlymore significant in thisregard.
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